Missouri Department of Conservation
Missouri Department of Conservation

Taxonomy

Common Name: SPADEFOOT, EASTERN

Phylum: CHORDATA

Class: AMPHIBIA

Order: ANURA

Family: PELOBATIDAE

Genus: SCAPHIOPUS

Species: HOLBROOKII

Taxonomic Authority: (HARLAN)

Taxonomy References: 002 , 014 , 017

Status

NONGAME
STATE RANK S2
GLOBAL RANK G5

Status References: 005 , 013

Habitat Summary

"Require fish free, isolated, ephemeral ponds for breeding, but spend most of adult life in surrounding uplands *019*. Occur in old fields and along woodland edge. Breed in pools with submergent vegetation."

Primary Habitat: "Grassland(matrix)"

References: 001 , 004

Distribution

General Occurrence in State:

"Has been collected from southeast corner of the state *01*."

County Occurance

County Occurence
Known Likely Unknown Not Likely Historic Extirpated
BOLLINGER CAPE GIRARDEAU ADAIR
BUTLER MADISON ANDREW
DUNKLIN PERRY ATCHISON
JEFFERSON RIPLEY AUDRAIN
MISSISSIPPI ST. FRANCOIS BARRY
NEW MADRID ST. LOUIS BARTON
PEMISCOT STE. GENEVIEVE BATES
SCOTT WAYNE BENTON
STODDARD BOONE
BUCHANAN
CALDWELL
CALLAWAY
CAMDEN
CARROLL
CARTER
CASS
CEDAR
CHARITON
CHRISTIAN
CLARK
CLAY
CLINTON
COLE
COOPER
CRAWFORD
DADE
DALLAS
DAVIESS
DEKALB
DENT
DOUGLAS
FRANKLIN
GASCONADE
GENTRY
GREENE
GRUNDY
HARRISON
HENRY
HICKORY
HOLT
HOWARD
HOWELL
IRON
JACKSON
JASPER
JOHNSON
KNOX
LACLEDE
LAFAYETTE
LAWRENCE
LEWIS
LINCOLN
LINN
LIVINGSTON
MACON
MARIES
MARION
MCDONALD
MERCER
MILLER
MONITEAU
MONROE
MONTGOMERY
MORGAN
NEWTON
NODAWAY
OREGON
OSAGE
OZARK
PETTIS
PHELPS
PIKE
PLATTE
POLK
PULASKI
PUTNAM
RALLS
RANDOLPH
RAY
REYNOLDS
SALINE
SCHUYLER
SCOTLAND
SHANNON
SHELBY
ST. CHARLES
ST. CLAIR
STONE
SULLIVAN
TANEY
TEXAS
VERNON
WARREN
WASHINGTON
WEBSTER
WORTH
WRIGHT

References for distribution: 001 , 016 , 018

Distribution by Watersheds

Miss. R. from St. Louis to River Aux Vases
Meramec R.
Big R.
Miss. R. from River Aux Vases to Ohio R.
Castor R. and Castor R. Diversion Channel
Miss R. from Ohio R. to Arkansas Border
St. John's Ditch and Blue Ditch
St. Francis R. from Wappapello Dam to Arkansas Border
Little R.
Area Bordered by Black R. and St. Francis R. South of Quintan, MO
Black R.
Current R.

Comments: "Likely to occur in listed units, based on county occurrence."

Distribution by Ecoregions

Mississippi River Alluvial Plains

Comments: ""

Distribution by Potential Natural Vegetation

Oak-Hickory Forest
Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest
Southern Floodplain Forest

Distribution by Natural Divisions of Missouri

Glaciated Plains: Eastern
Ozark Border: Mississippi River
Ozark: St. Francois Mountains
Ozark: Lower Ozark
Mississippi Lowlands
Mississippi Lowlands: Crowley's Ridge
Mississippi Lowlands: Lowlands

Habitat Associations

Species is associated with "Terrestrial/Aquatic" habitats.

National Wetlands Inventory Association:

Palustrine

Aquatic Associations:

"See Comments"
"Palustrine"

References for Aquatic Associations: 001 , 004

Habitat Types:

Waterhole
See Comments
Annuals
Shrub-Grass
Edge (Forest-Field)

References for Habitat Types: 001 , 006 , 003 , 019

Terrestrial Natural Communities:

Wetland
Swamps
Swamp
Pond Swamp
Shrub Swamp
Pond Shrub Swamp

References for Terrestrial Natural Communities: 001 , 004 , 009

Food Habits

Trophic Level:

"Carnivore"

Larval Food Habits

Amphibians; Egg stage
Other food habits; See Comments
Amphibians; Larva stage
Algae; Not Specified
Other Microorganisms; Not Specified

Comments for larval food habits:
"In VA, are herbaceous for 1st few days, then become omnivorous. "

References for larval food habits: 008

Juvenile Food Habits

Juvenile diet similar to adult's; Not Specified

Comments for Juvenile Food Habits:
"In VA, are herbaceous for 1st few days, then become omnivorous. "

References Juvenile Food Habits 003

Adult Food Habits

Lepidoptera (butterflies); Larva stage
Hemiptera (water bugs, water boatmen, stink bugs); Not Specified
Homoptera (cicadas, hoppers, aphids, scale insects); Not Specified
Coleoptera (beetles); Not Specified
Diptera (flies, midges, mosquitos, gnats); Not Specified
Hymenoptera (sawflies, ants, wasps, bees); Not Specified
Terrestrial Insects; Not Specified
Arthropods; Not Specified
Arachnids (spiders, ticks, mites, scorpions, daddy longlegs); Not Specified
Malacostraca (lobster, shrimp, crayfish, crabs); Not Specified
Insects Insects; Not Specified
Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, mantids); Not Specified
Isoptera (termites); Not Specified
Lepidoptera (butterflies); Adult Stage

Comments for Adult Food Habits:
""

References Adult Food Habits 001 , 009 , 010

Niche Requirements

Egg Niche Requirements

Water temperature specified in comments(00010)
Inland wetlands: waterhole or temporary pool
Inland wetlands: ditch

References for egg niches requirements: 001 , 008 , 011

Feeding Larvae Niche Requirements

Inland wetlands: waterhole or temporary pool
Inland wetlands: ditch

References for feeding larvae niche requirements: 001 , 008

Resting Larvae Niche Requirements

References for resting Larvae niche requirements:

Feeding Juvenile Niche Requirements

Edge: woodland/crop field edge
Edge: woodland/old field edge
Edge: woodland/grassland edge
Edge: woodland/water edge
Edge: grassland/old field edge
Successional stage: abandoned field

References for feeding juvenile niche requirements: 001 , 009

Resting Juvenile Niche Requirements

Soil type specified in comments(00300)

References for resting juvenile niche requirements: 001 , 009

Breeding Adult Niche Requirements

Other niche requirements specified in comments(99999)
Water temperature specified in comments(00010)
Aquatic vegetation specified in comments(00120)
Current velocity: no noticable current
Inland wetlands: waterhole or temporary pool
Inland wetlands: ditch
Air temperature specified in comments(00290)
Distance to water specified in comments(00430)

References for feeding Adult niche requirements: 001 , 004 , 009 , 011

Feeding Adult Niche Requirements

Edge: woodland/crop field edge
Edge: woodland/old field edge
Edge: woodland/grassland edge
Edge: woodland/water edge
Edge: grassland/old field edge
Successional stage: abandoned field

References for feeding adult niche requirements: 001 , 009

Resting Adult Niche Requirements

Edge: woodland/crop field edge
Edge: woodland/old field edge
Edge: woodland/grassland edge
Edge: woodland/water edge
Edge: grassland/old field edge
Successional stage: abandoned field

References for resting adult niche requirements: 001 , 009

Niche Requirement Summary

Air temperature specified in comments(00290)
Aquatic vegetation specified in comments(00120)
Current velocity: no noticable current
Distance to water specified in comments(00430)
Edge: grassland/old field edge
Edge: woodland/crop field edge
Edge: woodland/grassland edge
Edge: woodland/old field edge
Edge: woodland/water edge
Inland wetlands: ditch
Inland wetlands: waterhole or temporary pool
Other niche requirements specified in comments(99999)
Soil type specified in comments(00300)
Successional stage: abandoned field
Water temperature specified in comments(00010)

Comments about Life History:

Code Comment
017 Incubation period may last only a few days *01*, in VA, incubation may last 24 hours to 7 days, usually 1.5-2 days *08* in NJ (lab study), eggs hatched in 12-18 hours at 29-32 degrees c, 30-36 hours at 18-20 degrees c, 100 hours at 12 degrees c, and 168 hours at 7-10 degrees C *11*
028 In FL, home range 7.1-892 sq. Ft., average 108.4 sq. Ft., home range of males average 91.2 sq. Ft., home range of females average 111.5 sq. Ft. *09*
030 Activity positively correlated with amount of rainfall and relative humidity *01,09*. In FL, most active when daily temperature average 50-90 degrees F., peak activity at 69 degrees F. *09*
099 Length of larval period is a function of temperature *08*, may last less than 3 weeks *01*. May use same home range for 4 years or more. In FL study, 50% of recaptures were less than32' from original site over a 59-month period *13*. Spend most of time in underground burrows *01,09*, in FL, most burrows .75-1.25" diameter, 2-12" deep, most less than8" deep *09*. In VA, larvae exhibit schooling behavior, form feeding aggregations *08*.
018 In CT, clutch size 800-2000, larger females have larger clutches *12*
007 Breed from May-August *01* breeding initiated by heavy rains *01,04*

Life History Information

Home range size specified in comments(028)
Periodicity: active at night
Periodicity specified in comments(030)
Other life history information specified in comments(099)
Origin in state: native
Seasonal distribution in state: all seasons
Foraging strategy: stalking
Foraging sites: ground
Breeding season specified in comments(007)
Display site: water
Spawning site: aquatic vegetation
Gestation/incubation period specified in comments(017)
Clutch/litter size specified in comments(018)
Parental care of young: no care

Comments about Life History:

Code Comment
017 Incubation period may last only a few days *01*, in VA, incubation may last 24 hours to 7 days, usually 1.5-2 days *08* in NJ (lab study), eggs hatched in 12-18 hours at 29-32 degrees c, 30-36 hours at 18-20 degrees c, 100 hours at 12 degrees c, and 168 hours at 7-10 degrees C *11*
028 In FL, home range 7.1-892 sq. Ft., average 108.4 sq. Ft., home range of males average 91.2 sq. Ft., home range of females average 111.5 sq. Ft. *09*
030 Activity positively correlated with amount of rainfall and relative humidity *01,09*. In FL, most active when daily temperature average 50-90 degrees F., peak activity at 69 degrees F. *09*
099 Length of larval period is a function of temperature *08*, may last less than 3 weeks *01*. May use same home range for 4 years or more. In FL study, 50% of recaptures were less than32' from original site over a 59-month period *13*. Spend most of time in underground burrows *01,09*, in FL, most burrows .75-1.25" diameter, 2-12" deep, most less than8" deep *09*. In VA, larvae exhibit schooling behavior, form feeding aggregations *08*.
018 In CT, clutch size 800-2000, larger females have larger clutches *12*
007 Breed from May-August *01* breeding initiated by heavy rains *01,04*

References for life history: 001 , 004 , 008 , 009 , 011 , 012 , 013 , 003

Management

Beneficial Management Practices:

Shrub/brush - maintain riparian habitats
Shrub/brush - develop/maintain edge (ecotones)
Water - develop/maintain spawning/nesting facilities
Water - develop/maintain wetlands
Water - develop/maintain streamside vegetation
Agricultural - develop and maintain water holes, ponds, potholes, etc.
Agricultural - maintain riparian habitats
Agricultural - develop/maintain edge (ecotones)
Agricultural - maintain streamside vegetation
Forest - maintain early stage of ecological succession
Forest - maintain riparian habitats
Forest - develop/maintain edge (ecotones)
Forest - maintain streamside vegetation

Beneficial Management References: 001 , 004 , 008 , 015 , 003

Adverse Managment Practices:

Water - application of herbicides
Water - application of pesticides
Water - application of insecticides
Water - dredging and filling
Water - drainage of wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes
Agricultural - application of herbicides
Agricultural - application of pesticides
Agricultural - application of insecticides

Adverse Management References: 001 , 004 , 008 , 003

Comments on Management:
Constructing ephemeral pools is beneficial. Should attempt to reestablish ephemeral pools where they once existed. Possible sites can be identified using aerial photos, topographic maps, and on-site inspections. Pools should be no more than 24" deep, 10-15' across and 30-60' long, with sloping sides and some type of structure (small trees and bushes) placed in the pool. during construction, move soil perpendicular to and away from the presumed direction of water flow, so excess water will flow away. Surrounding trees should not be removed. *15*

References for Management Comments: 015

References

Reference Code Citation
001 Johnson, T.R. 2000. The Amphibians And Reptiles Of Missouri, 2nd. Ed. Missouri Dept. Of Conservation. Jefferson City, Mo. 400 Pp.
002 Unpb Missouri Department Of Conservation. Checklist Of Missouri Amphibians And Reptiles. Po Box 180. Jefferson City, Mo. 65102.
003 Unpb Johnson, T.R. Mo Dept. Of Conservation. P.O. Box 180 Jefferson City Mo 65102. (573-751-4115)
004 Hansen, K.L. 1958. Breeding Pattern Of The Eastern Spadefoot Toad. Herpetologica 14(2):57-67.
005 The Wildlife Code of Missouri. Missouri Department of Conservation, P.O. Box 180, Jefferson City, MO 65102. 573-751-4115.
006 Kelly, G. (Ed.) 1986. Animal Habitat Relations Handbook. Mo Dept. Of Conservation and U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Jefferson City, Mo. 293 Pp.
007 Thom, R.H. and J.H. Wilson. 1980 The Natural Divisions Of Missouri. Trans. Mo Acad. Sci. 14:9-24.
008 Richmond, N.D. 1947. Life History Of Scaphiopus Holbrooki Holbrooki (Harlan). Part I: Larval Development And Behavior. Ecology 28(1): 53-67.
009 Pearson, P.G. 1955. Population Ecology Of The Spadefoot, Scaphiopus Holbrooki (Harlan). Ecol. Monogr. 25:233-267.
010 Whitaker, J.O., Jr., D. Rubin, and J.R. Munsee. 1977. Observations Of Four Species Of Spadefoot Toads, Genus Scaphiopus. Herpetologica 33(4):468-475.
011 Gosner, K.L. and I.H. Black. 1954. Larval Development In Bufo Woodhousei Fowleri And Scaphiopus Holbrooki Holbrooki. Copeia 1954(4):251-255.
012 Ball, S.C. 1936. The Distribution And Behavior Of The Spadefoot Toad In Connecticut. Trans. Connecticut Acad. Arts and Sci. 32:351-379.
013 Missouri Natural Heritage Program. 2007. Missouri Species and Communities of Conservation Concern Checklist. MO Dept. of Conservation. Jefferson City, MO. 51 pp.
014 Collins, J.T. (Ed.). 1990. Standard Common And Current Scientifc Names For North American Amphibians And Reptiles, 3rd Ed. Soc. For The Study Of Amphibians and Reptiles, Herp. Cir. No. 19. 41 Pp.
015 Doolan, R. and T.R. Johnson. 1995. Ephemeral Pools: Their Value And Construction. Mo Dept. Of Conservation. Jefferson City, Mo. 6 Pp.
016 Powell, R., T.R. Johnson and D.D. Smith. 1995. New Records Of Amphibians And Reptiles In Missouri For 1995. Mo Herp. Assoc. Newsletter (8):9-12.
017 Crother, B.I. (Ed.). 2008. Scientific and standard English names of amphibians and reptiles of North America north of Mexico, with comments regarding confidence in our understanding (6th ed.). Society for the study of amphibians and reptiles. Herpetological Circular No. 37.
018 Daniel, R.E. and B.S. Edmond. 2002. Revised county distribution maps of amphibians and reptiles of Missouri. MO Herp. Assoc. Newsletter 15:16-38.
019 Greenberg, C.H. and G.W. Taner. 2004. Breeding pond selection and movement patterns by eastern spadefoot toads (Scaphiopus holbrookii) in relation to weather and edaphic conditions. Journal of Herpetology 38(4): 569-577.