Missouri Department of Conservation
Missouri Department of Conservation

Taxonomy

Common Name: RAIL, VIRGINIA

Phylum: CHORDATA

Class: AVES

Order: GRUIFORMES

Family: RALLIDAE

Genus: RALLUS

Species: LIMICOLA

SubSpecies: LIMCOLA

Taxonomic Authority: VIEILLOT

Taxonomy References: 001

Status

GAME
STATE RANK S2
GLOBAL RANK G5

Status References: 041 , 014 , 030

Habitat Summary

"Inhabit marshes with shallow water and dense robust emergent vegetation. Prefer vegetation greater than 30 cm tall."

Primary Habitat: "Wetland - marsh"

References: 008 , 003 , 004 , 005 , 006 , 007

Distribution

General Occurrence in State:

"Uncommon transient, casual summer resident in north *38*."

County Occurance

County Occurence
Known Likely Unknown Not Likely Historic Extirpated
ADAIR CAPE GIRARDEAU ATCHISON
ANDREW CLARK AUDRAIN
BOLLINGER DUNKLIN BARRY
BOONE JEFFERSON BARTON
BUCHANAN LEWIS BATES
CHARITON LINCOLN BENTON
HOLT MARION BUTLER
NODAWAY MISSISSIPPI CALDWELL
PIKE NEW MADRID CALLAWAY
ST. CHARLES OZARK CAMDEN
ST. CLAIR PEMISCOT CARROLL
ST. LOUIS RALLS CARTER
STODDARD SCHUYLER CASS
VERNON SCOTT CEDAR
WAYNE CHRISTIAN
CLAY
CLINTON
COLE
COOPER
CRAWFORD
DADE
DALLAS
DAVIESS
DEKALB
DENT
DOUGLAS
FRANKLIN
GASCONADE
GENTRY
GREENE
GRUNDY
HARRISON
HENRY
HICKORY
HOWARD
HOWELL
IRON
JACKSON
JASPER
JOHNSON
KNOX
LACLEDE
LAFAYETTE
LAWRENCE
LINN
LIVINGSTON
MACON
MADISON
MARIES
MCDONALD
MERCER
MILLER
MONITEAU
MONROE
MONTGOMERY
MORGAN
NEWTON
OREGON
OSAGE
PERRY
PETTIS
PHELPS
PLATTE
POLK
PULASKI
PUTNAM
RANDOLPH
RAY
REYNOLDS
RIPLEY
SALINE
SCOTLAND
SHANNON
SHELBY
ST. FRANCOIS
STE. GENEVIEVE
STONE
SULLIVAN
TANEY
TEXAS
WARREN
WASHINGTON
WEBSTER
WORTH
WRIGHT

References for distribution: 018 , 019 , 021 , 022 , 002 , 038 , 020 , 046

Distribution by Watersheds

Wyaconda R.
South Fabius R.
Miss. R. from Des Moines R. to MO. R.; and North R.
North Fork from Headwaters to South Fork
Salt R.
Cuivre R.
Dardenne Creek
Miss. R. from St. Louis to River Aux Vases
Meramec R.
Castor R. and Castor R. Diversion Channel
St. Francis R. from Headwaters to Wappapello Dam
St. Francis R. from Wappapello Dam to Arkansas Border
Little R.
Mo. R. from Nishnabotna R. to Nodaway R.
Nodaway R.
Mo.R. from Nodaway to Kansas City
Platte R.
One Hundred and Two R.
Grand R. from Shoal Creek to MO. R.
Chariton R. from Headwaters to Shuteye Creek
Chariton R. from Shuteye Creek to Mo. R.
Little Chariton R.
Little Osage R.
Marmaton R.
Osage R. from Headwaters to Warsaw, MO.
Sac R.
South Grand R.
Mo. R. from Kansas City to Little Chariton R.
Mo. R. from Gasconade R. to Miss. R.
Black R.

Comments: "Likely to occur in units listed, based on county occurrence."

Distribution by Ecoregions

Central Till Plains, Mississippi River Alluvial Plains, Osage Plains, Ozark Highlands

Comments: ""

Distribution by Potential Natural Vegetation

Bluestem Prairie/Oak Hickory Forest
Oak-Hickory Forest
Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest
Southern Floodplain Forest

Distribution by Natural Divisions of Missouri

Glaciated Plains
Glaciated Plains: Western
Glaciated Plains: Grand River
Glaciated Plains: Eastern
Glaciated Plains: Lincoln Hills
Big Rivers: Upper Missouri
Big Rivers: Lower Missouri
Big Rivers: Upper Mississippi
Ozark Border: Missouri River
Ozark Border: Mississippi River
Ozark: Springfield Plateau
Ozark: St. Francois Mountains
Ozark: Lower Ozark
Mississippi Lowlands: Lowlands
Osage Plains

Habitat Associations

Species is associated with "Terrestrial/Aquatic" habitats.

National Wetlands Inventory Association:

Palustrine

Aquatic Associations:

"See Comments"
"Palustrine", "Emergent, persistent"
"Palustrine", "Emergent, persistent",
"Palustrine", "Emergent, persistent",
"Palustrine", "Emergent, persistent",

References for Aquatic Associations: 044 , 010 , 011 , 012 , 023 , 026 , 027 , 003 , 004 , 005 , 006 , 037 , 040

Habitat Types:

Marsh

References for Habitat Types: 023 , 004 , 006 , 015

Terrestrial Natural Communities:

Wetland
Marshes
Freshwater Marsh
Pond Marsh
Ground Water Seepage
Fen

References for Terrestrial Natural Communities: 044 , 023 , 004 , 006

Food Habits

Trophic Level:

"Omnivore"

Larval Food Habits

Comments for larval food habits:
""

References for larval food habits:

Juvenile Food Habits

Juvenile diet similar to adult's; Not Specified

Comments for Juvenile Food Habits:
""

References Juvenile Food Habits 023

Adult Food Habits

Cyperaceae (sedge); Fruit/Seeds
Polygonaceae (buckwheat, rhubarb, smartweed); Fruit/Seeds
Rice; Fruit/Seeds
Wild rice; Fruit/Seeds
Lemnaceae (duckweed); All of plant
Coleoptera (beetles); Larva stage
Diptera (flies, midges, mosquitos, gnats); Larva stage
Odonata (dragonflies, damselflies); Larva stage
Hemiptera (water bugs, water boatmen, stink bugs); Not Specified
Aquatic Insects; Not Specified
Terrestrial Insects; Not Specified
Aquatic plants; Not Specified
Molluscs; Not Specified
Snails; Not Specified
Arachnids (spiders, ticks, mites, scorpions, daddy longlegs); Not Specified
Crustaceans; Not Specified
Insects Insects; Not Specified
Odonata (dragonflies, damselflies); Not Specified
Coleoptera (beetles); Adult Stage
Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, mantids); Adult Stage

Comments for Adult Food Habits:
""

References Adult Food Habits 010 , 001 , 003

Niche Requirements

Egg Niche Requirements

References for egg niches requirements:

Feeding Larvae Niche Requirements

References for feeding larvae niche requirements:

Resting Larvae Niche Requirements

References for resting Larvae niche requirements:

Feeding Juvenile Niche Requirements

Other niche requirements specified in comments(99999)
Aquatic vegetation: cattail (Typha)
Aquatic vegetation: bulrush (Scirpus)
Aquatic vegetation: sedge (Carex)
Aquatic vegetation: smartweed (Polygonum)
Aquatic vegetation specified in comments(00120)
Density of aquatic vegetation: dense
Water level: permanently flooded
Water level: intermittently exposed
Water level: artificially flooded
Water depth specified in comments(00230)
Inland wetlands: marsh

References for feeding juvenile niche requirements: 011 , 012 , 003 , 004 , 005

Resting Juvenile Niche Requirements

Aquatic vegetation: cattail (Typha)
Aquatic vegetation: bulrush (Scirpus)
Aquatic vegetation: sedge (Carex)
Aquatic vegetation: smartweed (Polygonum)
Aquatic vegetation specified in comments(00120)
Height of aquatic/emergent vegetation specified in comments(00125)
Water depth specified in comments(00230)
Edge: edge specified in comments(00350)

References for resting juvenile niche requirements: 008 , 012 , 004 , 005

Breeding Adult Niche Requirements

Other niche requirements specified in comments(99999)
Aquatic vegetation: cattail (Typha)
Aquatic vegetation: bulrush (Scirpus)
Aquatic vegetation: sedge (Carex)
Aquatic vegetation: smartweed (Polygonum)
Aquatic vegetation: arrowhead (Sagittaria)
Aquatic vegetation: spike rush (Eleocharis)
Aquatic vegetation: burreed (Sparganium)
Aquatic vegetation: water lily (Nymphaea)
Aquatic vegetation: rushes (Juncus)
Aquatic vegetation specified in comments(00120)
Aquatic vegetation: pickerel weed (Pontederia)
Aquatic vegetation: spatterdock
Height of aquatic/emergent vegetation specified in comments(00125)
Density of aquatic vegetation specified in comments(00130)
Open water (%) specified in comments(00135)
Water level: permanently flooded
Water level: intermittently exposed
Water level: semipermanently flooded
Water level: seasonally flooded
Water level: artificially flooded
Water depth specified in comments(00230)
Inland wetlands: marsh
Inland wetlands: fen
Herbaceous cover (%) specified in comments(00620) Herbaceous cover (%) specified in comments

References for feeding Adult niche requirements: 044 , 008 , 009 , 010 , 012 , 013 , 027 , 003 , 005 , 007 , 032 , 033 , 034 , 035 , 036 , 039

Feeding Adult Niche Requirements

Other niche requirements specified in comments(99999)
Aquatic vegetation: cattail (Typha)
Aquatic vegetation: bulrush (Scirpus)
Aquatic vegetation: sedge (Carex)
Aquatic vegetation: spike rush (Eleocharis)
Aquatic vegetation specified in comments(00120)
Density of aquatic vegetation: dense
Water level: permanently flooded
Water level: intermittently exposed
Water level: saturated
Water level: artificially flooded
Water level specified in comments(00180)
Floodplain wetlands: remnant wetlands
Water depth: shallow
Water depth specified in comments(00230)
Inland wetlands: marsh
General habitat association specified in comments(00270)
Natural features: mudflats
Herbaceous cover (%) specified in comments(00620) Herbaceous cover (%) specified in comments
Agricultural crops: flooded crop fields

References for feeding adult niche requirements: 042 , 043 , 045 , 011 , 012 , 026 , 003 , 004 , 005 , 028 , 032 , 034 , 036 , 037

Resting Adult Niche Requirements

Other niche requirements specified in comments(99999)
Aquatic vegetation: cattail (Typha)
Aquatic vegetation: bulrush (Scirpus)
Aquatic vegetation: sedge (Carex)
Aquatic vegetation: spike rush (Eleocharis)
Aquatic vegetation specified in comments(00120)
Density of aquatic vegetation: dense
Water level: permanently flooded
Water level: intermittently exposed
Water level: saturated
Water level: artificially flooded
Water level specified in comments(00180)
Floodplain wetlands: remnant wetlands
Water depth: shallow
Water depth specified in comments(00230)
Inland wetlands: marsh
General habitat association specified in comments(00270)
Natural features: mudflats
Herbaceous cover (%) specified in comments(00620) Herbaceous cover (%) specified in comments
Agricultural crops: flooded crop fields

References for resting adult niche requirements: 008 , 012 , 004 , 005

Niche Requirement Summary

Agricultural crops: flooded crop fields
Aquatic vegetation specified in comments(00120)
Aquatic vegetation: arrowhead (Sagittaria)
Aquatic vegetation: bulrush (Scirpus)
Aquatic vegetation: burreed (Sparganium)
Aquatic vegetation: cattail (Typha)
Aquatic vegetation: pickerel weed (Pontederia)
Aquatic vegetation: rushes (Juncus)
Aquatic vegetation: sedge (Carex)
Aquatic vegetation: smartweed (Polygonum)
Aquatic vegetation: spatterdock
Aquatic vegetation: spike rush (Eleocharis)
Aquatic vegetation: water lily (Nymphaea)
Density of aquatic vegetation specified in comments(00130)
Density of aquatic vegetation: dense
Edge: edge specified in comments(00350)
Floodplain wetlands: remnant wetlands
General habitat association specified in comments(00270)
Height of aquatic/emergent vegetation specified in comments(00125)
Herbaceous cover (%) specified in comments(00620) Herbaceous cover (%) specified in comments
Inland wetlands: fen
Inland wetlands: marsh
Natural features: mudflats
Open water (%) specified in comments(00135)
Other niche requirements specified in comments(99999)
Water depth specified in comments(00230)
Water depth: shallow
Water level specified in comments(00180)
Water level: artificially flooded
Water level: intermittently exposed
Water level: permanently flooded
Water level: saturated
Water level: seasonally flooded
Water level: semipermanently flooded

Comments about Life History:

Code Comment
003 Commonly occurs with sora in MO *02,04*
031 In AL study, all documented mortality occurred between October and March *30*.
004 Also runs bill along cattail stalks *03*
007 In IA, nest mid May-early July *09*. In CO, courtship occurs in April *12*. In KS, peak nesting activity 2nd week of June *17*. In IA, majority of egg laying is last week of May *07*. MI nesting mainly May 10-30 *10*. In CT, nest construction largely 2nd and 3rd week of May *13*
014 In MI, nest height average 14 cm from water to rim (varies with rainfall) *10*
015 In OH, blue-joint grass was structural material in 55.6% nests *05*. Usually of leaves and stalks of plants present at site *07,10,13,09*. In IA, 73% of nests made primarily of lake sedge *07*
016 In IA, mean nest dimensions: outer depth 5.9", inner depth 1.7", outer diamter 6.7", inner diamter 4.5"" *07,09*. In MI, inner dimensions: 12 * 12 cm, outer: 15 cm, depth average 3cm *10*. In CT, dimensions average: inner depth 1.75", outrt depth (rim-water) 6.4", average size of nest bowl 4.6" * 4.5: *13*
011 In IA, 91.9% suspended from stalks of emergent plants, remainder within grass clumps *07*
017 Incubation in IA ranged from 18-22 days.(in some nests incubation began before last egg laid *10*
018 Clutch 4-10 eggs, average 8.1 in IA *09*. In MN, average 8.4 eggs *03*. 6-13 eggs in MI, average (lower peninsula):8.06, (upper peninsula):10.44. *10*. In CT, 7-11, average 9.66 *13*. In ND, average 7.86 *29*.
026 No evidence of territorial defense in IA study *09*. In CO, sora and VA rail territories overlapped to some extent *12*. In MN, males defended larger area than female, female did most of her chasing during incubation and brooding, chased conspecifics but frequently tolerated soras *03*.
033 In CT, 1st arrivals April 20, peak 1st week of May *13*. In southern MO, 1st observed September 29 for fall migration, departed late October *04*. Spring migration in MO seen mid-April to early June *43*. Arrive in KS around April 6 *17*. In OH, arrive 2nd half of April, depart by oct 1 *05*. In IA, peak migration early May *07*. N. IA residents late April-mid October *09*. In CO, peak concentrations 2nd week of May and mid August-September*08*
035 Predators include mammals, birds *06,09*. Flooding and hail also destroy nests *06,09*
099 Most nests have canopies and ramps *13,09*. In IA, 46/124 nests unoccupied. Nests distance between occupied nests 56', between virginia and sora 56', between virginia and king 264' *07*. Many empty nests found in CT, usually greater than43' from nearest active nest: minimum dist. Between active nests 132'*13*. In mn. Males built brood nest near active nest *03*. 50-78% nest success *06*. In IA, 4/6 nests successful, 65% hatching success *07*. In CT, egg success 95.7%, nesting success 68% *13*. An AL study found 53% nest success *30*. Juveniles seem self-sufficient within week, but adults continue to feed them for some time *03*. Brood stayed near nest for several days after hatching in IA *09*. When 1st hatch, come back to nest at night *10*. Chicks constantly brooded for 1st 4-7 days *03*. IA densities: 1 breeding adult/1.5 acres cover, 7.6 chicks per nest *09*. Also in ia:(1951) 1 nest/3 acres of cover, (1952) 1 nest/2.6 acres of cover *09*. Inter- and intraspecific nest parasitism *09*.

Life History Information

Territoriality specified in comments(026)
Mortality rate specified in comments(031)
Migration patterns specified in comments(033)
Regulatory factors specified in comments(035)
Other life history information specified in comments(099)
Origin in state: native
Seasonal distribution in state: spring/summer/fall
Closely associated plant or animal species specified in comments(003)
Foraging strategy: probing
Foraging strategy: browsing
Foraging strategy specified in comments(004)
Foraging sites: ground
Breeding season specified in comments(007)
Mating system: monogamy
Nest/den site: emergent aquatic vegetation
Nest/den site: rushes and cattails
Nest/den site specified in comments(011)
Nest height specified in comments(014)
Nest materials: grasses
Nest materials: forbs
Nest materials: leaves
Nest materials specified in comments(015)
Nest dimensions specified in comments(016)
Gestation/incubation period specified in comments(017)
Clutch/litter size specified in comments(018)
Number of broods/litter per year: one
Development of young at birth/hatching: precocial
Parental care of young: both parents

Comments about Life History:

Code Comment
003 Commonly occurs with sora in MO *02,04*
031 In AL study, all documented mortality occurred between October and March *30*.
004 Also runs bill along cattail stalks *03*
007 In IA, nest mid May-early July *09*. In CO, courtship occurs in April *12*. In KS, peak nesting activity 2nd week of June *17*. In IA, majority of egg laying is last week of May *07*. MI nesting mainly May 10-30 *10*. In CT, nest construction largely 2nd and 3rd week of May *13*
014 In MI, nest height average 14 cm from water to rim (varies with rainfall) *10*
015 In OH, blue-joint grass was structural material in 55.6% nests *05*. Usually of leaves and stalks of plants present at site *07,10,13,09*. In IA, 73% of nests made primarily of lake sedge *07*
016 In IA, mean nest dimensions: outer depth 5.9", inner depth 1.7", outer diamter 6.7", inner diamter 4.5"" *07,09*. In MI, inner dimensions: 12 * 12 cm, outer: 15 cm, depth average 3cm *10*. In CT, dimensions average: inner depth 1.75", outrt depth (rim-water) 6.4", average size of nest bowl 4.6" * 4.5: *13*
011 In IA, 91.9% suspended from stalks of emergent plants, remainder within grass clumps *07*
017 Incubation in IA ranged from 18-22 days.(in some nests incubation began before last egg laid *10*
018 Clutch 4-10 eggs, average 8.1 in IA *09*. In MN, average 8.4 eggs *03*. 6-13 eggs in MI, average (lower peninsula):8.06, (upper peninsula):10.44. *10*. In CT, 7-11, average 9.66 *13*. In ND, average 7.86 *29*.
026 No evidence of territorial defense in IA study *09*. In CO, sora and VA rail territories overlapped to some extent *12*. In MN, males defended larger area than female, female did most of her chasing during incubation and brooding, chased conspecifics but frequently tolerated soras *03*.
033 In CT, 1st arrivals April 20, peak 1st week of May *13*. In southern MO, 1st observed September 29 for fall migration, departed late October *04*. Spring migration in MO seen mid-April to early June *43*. Arrive in KS around April 6 *17*. In OH, arrive 2nd half of April, depart by oct 1 *05*. In IA, peak migration early May *07*. N. IA residents late April-mid October *09*. In CO, peak concentrations 2nd week of May and mid August-September*08*
035 Predators include mammals, birds *06,09*. Flooding and hail also destroy nests *06,09*
099 Most nests have canopies and ramps *13,09*. In IA, 46/124 nests unoccupied. Nests distance between occupied nests 56', between virginia and sora 56', between virginia and king 264' *07*. Many empty nests found in CT, usually greater than43' from nearest active nest: minimum dist. Between active nests 132'*13*. In mn. Males built brood nest near active nest *03*. 50-78% nest success *06*. In IA, 4/6 nests successful, 65% hatching success *07*. In CT, egg success 95.7%, nesting success 68% *13*. An AL study found 53% nest success *30*. Juveniles seem self-sufficient within week, but adults continue to feed them for some time *03*. Brood stayed near nest for several days after hatching in IA *09*. When 1st hatch, come back to nest at night *10*. Chicks constantly brooded for 1st 4-7 days *03*. IA densities: 1 breeding adult/1.5 acres cover, 7.6 chicks per nest *09*. Also in ia:(1951) 1 nest/3 acres of cover, (1952) 1 nest/2.6 acres of cover *09*. Inter- and intraspecific nest parasitism *09*.

References for life history: 043 , 008 , 009 , 010 , 012 , 013 , 017 , 002 , 003 , 004 , 005 , 006 , 007 , 029 , 030

Management

Beneficial Management Practices:

Regulate harvest of species being described
Water - develop/maintain wetlands
Water - develop/maintain freshwater marsh
Water - control sedimentation
Water - control pollution (thermal, physical, chemical)
Water - control water levels

Beneficial Management References: 023 , 025 , 004

Adverse Managment Practices:

Water - application of pesticides
Water - application of insecticides
Water - dredging and filling
Water - control aquatic plants
Water - navigational improvements (channelization, dams, locks)
Water - stream channelization
Water - drainage of wetlands, marshes, ponds, lakes

Adverse Management References: 023 , 025 , 004 , 006

Comments on Management:
Destruction of wetlands is greatest threat *04,06*. In OH, rails occupied stands of nodding smartweed, water millet, and redroot cyperus in units reflooded with 6-24" in mid-August. With marsh divided into several independent control units, feasible to establish system of biennial drawdowns on alternate units *05*. In southeast MO, rails and shorebirds selectively attracted to man-made wetlands. Shallow flooding (5-15cm) of moist soil plants in September-October and late March-early may attracted soras and virginia rails, management for spring migrants successful only in vegetative types that provide emergent cover, plant species composition appeared to have little impact. For spring migrants, need late fall and winter drawdown of early successional annual grasses, or selection of later success. Stage sedges, rushes, and woody shrubs. Rail and shorebird management mutually exclusive, regular use of one impoundment by both rails and shorebirds might be obtained in fall by disking higher elevations of unit and leaving vegetation standing in low areas. If disked portions then flooded to appropriate depth for shorebirds, water depths in lower, vegetated portions probably suitable for rails, late summer flooding for south bound rails effectively set back succession on one plot. Suggested phenologic clues for management in southeast mo: manipulations to attract spring migrants should be underway when eastern cottonwood and red maple reach peak blooming, areas flooded for spring rails can be dewatered when flowering dogwood finished blooming. Impoundments for southbound rails should be flooded as american lotus and trumpet creeper complete blossoming, and can be dewatered when goldenrod blossoms degenerate.*04* should provide rank emergent vegetation with diversity of substrates and water depths. Shallowly flooded areas with tall, dense vegetation interspersed with dry or saturated sites are optimum. *26*. Moist soil management is most effective when it results in diverse habitat with shallow water and mudflats interspersed with dense vegetation. Should provide diversity of plant species with annuals predominating. Partial drawdowns in early spring benefit nesting and migrant birds. *36*. Marshes with buildup of residual vegetation should be burned, disced, flooded, mowed or plowed to reduce the residual vegetation *32,36*.

References for Management Comments: 026 , 004 , 005 , 006

References

Reference Code Citation
001 American Ornithologists Union. 1983. Checklist Of North American Birds (6th Ed.) Allen Press, Lawrence, KS. 877 Pp.
002 Unpb Wilson, Jim D. Mo Dept. Conserv. P.O. Box 180. Jefferson City, Mo 65102. (573)751-4115.
003 Unpb Kaufman, G.W. 1971. Behavior And Ecology Of The Sora, Porzana Carolina And Virginia Rail, Rallus Limicola. Ph.D. Thesis. Univ. Mn. 184pp.
004 Unpb Rundle, W.D. 1980. Management, Habitat Selection, And Feeding Ecology Of Migrant Rails And Shorebirds. M.S. Thesis. Univ. Mo, Columbia. 228pp.
005 Unpb Andrews, D.A. 1973. Habitat Utilization By Sora, Virginia Rails And King Rails Near Southwestern Lake Erie. M.S. Thesis. Oh St. Univ.
006 Sanderson, G.C. 1977. Management Of Migratory Shore And Upland Game Birds In North America. Inter. Assoc. Fish and Wildl. Agency. 358 Pp.
007 Unpb Tanner, W.D. 1953. Ecology Of The Virginia And King Rails And The Sora In Clay County, Iowa. Ph.D. Thesis. Ia St. College. Ames. 154pp.
008 Griese, H.J., R.R. Ryder, and C.E. Braun. 1980. Spatial And Temporal Distribution Of Rails In Colorado. Wilson Bull. 92(1):96-102.
009 Tanner, W.D. and G.O. Hendrickson. 1954. Ecology Of The Virginia Rail In Clay County, Ia. Iowa Bird Life 24(4):65-70.
010 Walkinshaw, L.H. 1937. The Virginia Rail In Michigan, Auk 54(4):
011 Horak, G.J. 1970. A Comparative Study Of The Foods Of The Sora And Virginia Rail, Wilson Bull. 82(2):206-213.
012 Glahn, J.F. 1974. Study Of Breeding Rails With Recorded Calls In North-Central Colorado. Wilson Bull. 86(3):206-214.
013 Unpb Billard, R.S. 1948. An Ecological Study Of The Virginia Rail (Rallus Limicola) And The Sora (Porzana Carolina) In Some Connecticut Swamps. M.S. Thesis. Ia St. College, Ames.
014 Missouri Register. Migratory Game Birds And Waterfowl: Seasons, Limits. 3csr 10-7.440.
015 Kelly, G. (Ed.) 1986. Animal Habitat Relations Handbook. Mo Dept. Of Conservation and U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Jefferson City, Mo. 293 Pp.
016 Thom, R.H. and J.H. Wilson. 1980 The Natural Divisions Of Missouri. Trans. Mo Acad. Sci. 14:9-24.
017 Unpb Baird, K.E. 1974. A Field Study Of The King. Sora And Virginia Rails At Cheyenne Bottoms In West-Central Kansas. M.S. Thesis. Fort Hays Ks St. College, Hays. 39pp.
018 Kleen, V.M. 1976. The Changing Seasons - Middlewestern Prairie Region. Amer. Birds 30(5):961-965.
019 Robbins, M. 1978. Spring Survey. Bluebird 45(3):14-20.
020 Welcome To Swan Lake National Wildlife Refuge. U.S. Fish And Wildlife Service National Wildlife Refuge Pamphlet.
021 Birds Of Mingo National Wildlife Refuge.1970.Department Of The Interior Fish And Wildlife Service.Bureau Of Sport Fisheries And Wildlife.Refuge Leaflet 179-R3.
022 Duck Creek Bird Checklist. 1979. Missouri Dept. Of Conservation, Jefferson City, Mo.
023 Unpb Fredrickson, L.H. Univ. Mo. Gaylord Research Lab. Puxico, Mo. 63960. (573)222-3203.
024 Unpb Reed, F.A. Univ. Of Missouri. 112 Stephens Hall. Columbia, Mo 65211. (573)882-3426.
025 Unpb Smith, J.W. Mo Dept. Of Conservation, 1110 S. College Ave., Columbia, Mo 65201 (573-882-9880).
026 Sayre, M.W. and W.D. Rundle. 1984. Comparison Of Habitat Use By Migrant Soras And Virginia Rails. J. Wildl. Manage. 48(2):599-605.
027 Johnson, R.R. and J.J. Dinsmore. 1986. Habitat Use By Breeding Virginia Rails And Soras. J. Wildl. Manage. 50(3):387-392.
028 Smith, J.W. 1987. An Evaluation Of The Effects Of Wetland Management/Greentree Reservoir Management On Birds At The Ted Shanks Wildlife Management Area. Mo Dept. Conserv. P-R Proj. W-13-R-40, Study No. 50, Job No. 2 and 3.
029 Kantrud, H.A. and K.F. Higgins. 1992. Nest And Nest Site Characteristics Of Some Ground-Nesting Non-Passerine Birds Of Northern Grasslands. Prairie Nat. 24:67-84.
030 Conway, C.J., W.R. Eddleman and S.H. Anderson. 1994. Nesting Success And Survival Of Virginia Rails And Soras. Wilson Bull. 106(3):466-473.
031 Krapu, G.L. and R.K. Green. 1978. Breeding Bird Populations Of Selected Semipermanent Wetlands In South-Central North Dakota. Amer. Birds 32:110-112.
032 Unpb Johnson, R.R. 1984. Breeding Habitat Use And Postbreeding Movements By Soras And Virginia Rails. M.S. Thesis, Iowa State Univ. Ames, Ia. 52 Pp.
033 Unpb Conway, C.J. 1990. Seasonal Changes In Movement And Habitat Use By Three Sympatric Species Of Rails. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Wyoming, Laramie. 58 Pp.
034 Unpb Tacha, R.W. 1975. A Survey Of Rail Populations In Kansas, With Emphasis On Cheyenne Bottoms. M.S. Thesis, Kansas State Univ., Fort Hays. 54 Pp.
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